IR Scholars

— by Mahmud Novruzov —

Nation, Nationalism, and East-West Dilemma Formulation of the Problem Nation: The concept of a nation is formed based on the unity of the society in different fields. These fields may include education, history, language, identity, culture, art, social, legal, and public. This concept can also be considered political entities in many sovereign states recognised by other states. Nevertheless, the political freedom of nations may sometimes be absent or very limited. On the other hand, they may have more political rights. They can even cross political borders. From the political view, there are some states that represent only one specific nation. We can give some examples of these states, like Japan, France, or the United States.

Nationalism: It reflects the ideologies and interests of a nation or groups of people in cultural, political, and social fields. Nationalism strongly emphasises the values and views of a nation. This type of nationalism model is created by the majority groups of the nation, and it is called chauvinism. Nationalists think that individuals should stick to their moral values and prioritise these interests. There are some forms of nationalism:

1. Ethnic Nationalism: This means that the values of a nation based on its historical roots are put forward by those individuals. Members of the majority nation are more active in this area and can easily suppress other nations.

2. Religious Nationalism: In this type of nationalism, the religion of the ruling group is considered important. The members of this nation try to establish every rule based on their religion, and for this, they fight with other groups, rejecting their rules for various reasons. These rules cover the ruling nation’s identity, religious beliefs, and views on issues from different aspects.

3. Economic Nationalism: Economic nationalism is a type of nationalism based on securing economic interests. The main goal is to realise the quality production of local products and to ensure fast, large-scale sales. This type of economic reform is preferred to win the domestic market in competition with the foreign market. Sometimes, several restrictions on the import of foreign products are applied to implement this. These restrictions include high taxes on foreign products, some bans on their sale, etc.

 4. Civic Nationalism: Civil nationalism is based on the provision of legal equality of citizens and mutual respect for shared values. The main goal was to eliminate ethnic and racial discrimination and to apply it in people’s relations with each other. Such measures are usually implemented in democratic countries, and it is considered important that other states also participate in these measures. Nationalism is an admirable measure in terms of uniting people around common values and ensuring the development of sustainable cooperation between them. However, if it is not done correctly, it can lead to unexpected and unpleasant consequences. For example, a majority nation may begin to despise other nations, including ethnic minorities. There can be deep conflicts between nations. Nationalism is the main factor that causes people to gather behind a goal and gain freedom and the creation of independent states.

East-West Dilemma—The East-West dilemma refers to the cultural diversity between the East and the West, the diversity of ideologies, and the relations between the parties in other areas. These relationships manifest themselves in several ways:

1. Political ideologies: The political relations between Eastern and Western powers were strained during the Cold War. The Eastern Bloc countries were ruled by the Soviet Union, and the Western Bloc countries were ruled by the United States. The conflict between these blocs was based on the struggle between communism and capitalism. It can also be seen as a struggle between democracy and authoritarianism.

2. Economic Systems: As in many fields, there were contradictions between East and West in the economic field. The main reason for this was that the East preferred communism, and the West preferred a management system based on capitalism. As a result, there were deep differences between their market economies.

3. Cultural Differences: The basis of cultural differences between East and West is the diversity between modernity and traditional values. Differences in management systems also show themselves in the field of culture. The Eastern system has a traditional cultural system because the East prefers communism, traditional management methods, and traditional methods of solving problems. Because the West prefers capitalism and builds relations with other parties based on modern views, it is considered a supporter of modern culture.

4. Philosophical and Religious Differences: Eastern philosophy, Confucianism, promotes Buddhism and Taoism. Based on these sects, the interaction of people, the development of people’s spiritual values, and the charming harmony of nature are emphasised more prominently. In the West, scientific research is considered more logical. Humanistic values are brought to the fore. Based on humanism, the role of a person is at the centre of attention in every field.

Nations share their features for shaping their political, social, and cultural unity. There are some key approaches of the nation:

• Territory: Each nation exists in a certain geographical area. Even if some nations do not have independent states, they have certain rights in the states they are part of. This may be more so in democratic states. However, if this measure is not implemented properly, it may lead to a violation of the balance of human rights between the local people and other nations.

• Shared History and Culture: Since nations are interconnected, their historical and cultural relations have an impact on each other. The historical traditions of nations integrate. This process takes place when nations show respect for each other’s traditions and national holidays and have a tolerant approach to them.

• Sense of Community: The main requirement of sustainable relations between nations is the provision of public security. Public security means ensuring the protection of public activity among nations; the absence of any law-breaking restrictions; peaceful resolution of misunderstandings among nations, etc. is intended. Giving nations so much freedom can lead to anarchy. To prevent such situations, there should be certain frameworks in the protection of public order. There is an example of nations that reflect these characteristics: Kurdish people are a people settled in several countries. These countries include Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. Each country has a different attitude towards these people. Although the Kurds are a widespread people, they do not have a concrete state. The state’s attitude towards such and such nations varies depending on their respect and tolerance for the laws and traditions of the state where they live. Nationalism arises from the unification of nations based on their interests and provides nations with the right to demand their rights and protection from foreign interference. The main features of nationalism include:

• Unity and Solidarity: Nationalism supports cooperation aimed at strengthening people’s national identities. This cooperation encourages faster resolution of problems and mutual development of nations in several fields. From this point of view, despite some exceptions, in modern times, nations strive for cooperation.

• Pride in National Identity: National identity refers to historically developed customs, religious views, and other characteristics of a nation that distinguish it from other nations. Each nation has its own national identity, and each nation considers it inviolable. Others must respect and ensure this immunity.

• Desire for Sovereignty or Autonomy: Although nationalists have certain rights and a comfortable way of life in the countries where they live, they want an independent state for themselves. They think that having the traditions of statehood will give them political independence. Realising that an independent state and administrative system are not easily established, nationalists consider it satisfactory to have autonomy. There are some concepts of nationalism:

Indian Nationalism: The development of nationalism in India mainly covers the period of British occupation. One of the main reasons for the liberation of India from British occupation in the 20th century was the unification of the people and the strong influence of nationalism. The people’s struggle for freedom and political independence was successful, and this victory became the main symbol of nationalism for India.

Scottish Nationalism: The same successful result can be seen in Scotland. Scottish nationalists also fought the British occupation to gain independence and realise their interests. Victory was won in this struggle, in which nationalism played an important role, and Scotland gained political freedom.

American Nationalism: Nationalism in America is based on the preservation and development of political values, democracy, and freedom. American nationalism as a term is associated with civic identity and the expression of the “American dream.”. The East-West dilemma describes the differences between the two sides politically, historically, and culturally. Basic concepts of the East-West dilemma:

• Geopolitical Divide: The East- West dilemma began during the Cold War and deepened the differences between the parties. Countries covering the East include China, Korea, Japan, the Middle East, and Eastern European countries. The West is supported by Australia, North America, and Western European countries. Countries that support the West are countries that promote democracy, protection of individual rights, and capitalism and implement their policies based on these ideas.

 • Modern East-West Dilemma: The weakening and collapse of the Soviet Union somewhat mitigated the East-West dilemma but did not eliminate it. Global conflicts in modern times have re-intensified the East-West dilemma:

1. U.S. vs. China: China’s economic development and global potential seriously worried its competitors, including the United States. China’s economic development and its significant influence on the world economy have revived the East-West dilemma. Another concern of the United States is that China is ruled by an authoritarian-communist government.

2. Middle East Conflicts: The tension between Islam and Western secularism in the Middle East is destabilizing the region. The conflicts in the region were the main obstacle preventing development. Western intervention in these conflicts worsened the situation. As a result, the East-West dilemma continued.

 Critical analysis of the nation: The concept of the nation is considered a relatively modern concept, and its creation covers the 18th and 19th centuries. Several critics claim that the concept of a nation was put forward by a group of political elites to create a state structure that suits their interests. An example of this is the processes taking place in African countries. The nationalism spread in Africa is based on the assumptions put forward by some colonial powers but does not include any national identity or traditions. When evaluating the concept of a nation, in many cases, internal diversity is not taken into account. This lack leads to deep conflicts inside nations. On the other hand, globalisation has a negative impact on nation-state relations. The desire to strengthen cultural and economic relations between some countries puts nationalism in the background. This leads to some gaps in the attitude of states towards nations, and as a result, nations are dissatisfied with the impact of globalisation on them.

Critical analysis of nationalism: Nationalism can have two types: inclusive and exclusive nationalism. Inclusive nationalism highlights shared traditions and diversity among nations. Exclusive nationalism emphasises negative attitudes towards minority groups, discrimination against them, and their oppression.

Dangerous Consequences: Nationalism is usually associated with ethnic conflicts and conflicts between groups. This happens on the basis of differences of opinion between different societies. For example, conflicts in Germany and conflicts and war in Bosnia were caused by nationalism. Globalism affects nationalism as it does in every field. While globalism prioritises international cooperation and interdependence between parties, nationalism prioritises sovereignty and independence. The tension between the parties increases as the views of the two opposing parties contradict each other. Nationalism can also increase ethnic and religious tensions between groups. This process can cause minority groups to be subjected to violence and deprived of certain rights.

Critical analysis of the East-West Dilemma: This dilemma, which started during the Cold War, became more complicated after the end of this period. The main actor reviving the East-West Dilemma is the emergence of new powers such as Russia and China and their policies against the West. This policy of China and Russia undermined the dominance of the United States. The East-West Dilemma is sometimes seen as a struggle between civilizations. This struggle takes place between Eastern and Western values. Despite this conflict, a number of countries in the East, such as South Korea and Japan, have accepted Western democracy and Western policies in the market economy. Due to the presence of globalisation, there has been some progress in the economic field between the East and the West. Technological integration and trade relations between the parties have created mutual dependence between East and West. This dilemma is still active in geopolitical competition. For example, we can see this in the conflict between Russia and NATO and in the intense struggle between the United States and China in the areas of trade and technology. The East-West dilemma has a negative impact on international diplomacy. Countries often have to choose between the two sides. As a result, this weakens the development of international diplomacy, and cooperation in various fields turns into competition.

Mutual analysis of the nation, nationalism, and East-West Dilemma shows that these concepts can lead to the emergence of conflicts and the development of cooperation between states in various fields in both historical and modern political contexts. The concept of a nation is considered a more social factor and can sometimes be incompatible with ethnic and cultural boundaries. This inconsistency became more pronounced in the era of globalisation. Although the East-West dilemma also began with a simple struggle between capitalism and communism in the past, the emergence of new powers and the development of technology have had both negative and positive effects on this dilemma. Today’s world is the product of processes related to these three concepts. Although these concepts seem simple, they have a great impact on the structure of modern world politics. In the global world, the effects of these concepts on the world environment have expanded. Analysing these effects in detail is considered important to solve the problems that may arise in a short time. For this, these concepts should be explained from several aspects. It is not excluded that these concepts will cover more areas in the future. When comparing the impact of these concepts in the past and the impact on various fields in the modern era, the differences that emerge are considered the main indicators of development or backwardness. In the future, the integration of nations into globalisation will be easier, thanks to the experiences of the 21st century. The East-West Dilemma is no longer only perceived as a conflict but also as a concept that shapes new political forces, economic relations between them, and political cooperation. A critical analysis and evaluation of the concepts of nation, nationalism, and the East-West dilemma are considered important for a full understanding of the meaning of these concepts.

List of references/literature

• Benedict Anderson – Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983)
  • This seminal work discusses the concept of nations as socially constructed entities that exist in the imagination of their people. Anderson’s theory of nationalism is grounded in print capitalism and the role of media in uniting large populations.
• Ernest Gellner – Nations and Nationalism (1983)
  • Gellner argues that nationalism is a modern phenomenon driven by the need for a unified educational and cultural system, particularly as industrialization creates the conditions for centralized political power.
• Anthony D. Smith – Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History (2001)
  • Smith examines nationalism through an ethno-symbolic approach, focusing on the importance of shared memories, symbols, and traditions in shaping national identity.
• John Hutchinson – Nations and Nationalism: A Reader (1994)
  • This book provides a wide-ranging collection of essays on nationalism and its various theories, offering insights from a variety of political, sociological, and historical perspectives.

Articles & Journals:

• Eric Hobsbawm – “Introduction: Nationalism in the Age of Globalization,” Nations and Nationalism (1990)
  • Hobsbawm explores the persistence of nationalism in a globalized world, challenging the view that nationalism will fade with the rise of internationalism and the modern state.
• Roger Brubaker – “Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe” (1996)
  • Brubaker analyzes nationalism in the context of post-communist and post-Soviet Europe, focusing on ethnic and civic nationalism in modern Europe.

• Samuel P. Huntington – The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996)
  • Huntington explores the idea of a “clash” between the West and non-Western civilizations, particularly focusing on the tensions between the Western and Eastern (Islamic, Orthodox, Confucian) spheres.
• Fukuyama, Francis – The End of History and the Last Man (1992)
  • Fukuyama argues that with the end of the Cold War, liberal democracy has triumphed as the final form of human government, posing a dilemma for Eastern nations traditionally outside of the Western democratic model.
• Tariq Ali – The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads, and Modernity (2002)
  • This book critiques the Western approach to Eastern political movements, particularly focusing on the role of fundamentalism in both the West and East, and the complex geopolitics surrounding these cultures.
• Edward Said – Orientalism (1978)
  • Said’s landmark work on how Western cultures constructed a view of the East as the “Other” in order to justify imperialism and dominance, providing crucial insights into East-West relations and colonial discourse.
• Zbigniew Brzezinski – The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives (1997)
  • Brzezinski explores the geopolitical dynamics of East-West relations, particularly focusing on the strategic importance of Eurasia for global power.

Articles & Journals:

• Alastair Iain Johnston – “Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History” (1995)
  • Johnston’s article explores how East Asian strategic culture, particularly in China, differs from Western strategic thought, influencing East- West interactions.
• George Weigel – “The East-West Divide: Rethinking the Clash of Civilizations” (2007)
  • Weigel delves into the philosophical, religious, and historical aspects of the East- West divide, discussing how it informs contemporary political conflict.